Mobility & Movement
Mobility is one of the most important factors when it comes to a good quality of life, overall well-being, the efficiency of movement and various exercises, and improved athletic performance. It is crucial for movement and maintaining health through physical activity; nevertheless, it is moderately to almost completely neglected in most exercise programs.
Mobility is very important because it determines a joint’s functional capacity, and each joint is unique, with its mobility determined by its function within the musculoskeletal system.
For example, the hip and shoulder girdle have a similar structure, but the hip is more closed because it must support the body’s weight, while the shoulder girdle is more mobile because it bears only the weight of the arm. Less mobile joints are generally more stable. This is also why shoulder dislocations are much more common than hip dislocations. Likewise, the same joints on different sides of the body can have different ranges of motion. These differences arise due to genetics, frequency of use, variations in connective tissue, or injuries.
BENEFITS OF GOOD MOBILITY
* Increased range of motion
* Slower decline in functional ability due to aging
* Body symmetry
* Stress relief
* Reduced tension
* Muscle relaxation
* Lower likelihood of muscle cramps
* Lower risk of injury
* Relief from muscle pain
* Improved quality of life
The Importance of Range of Motion
The range of motion in a joint affects its function. If we maintain an optimal range of motion, the joint will remain stable and healthy even during high-speed movements. Likewise, a full range of motion prevents the consequences of reduced mobility, especially in older adults.
Poor mobility contributes to musculoskeletal injuries.
Body symmetry is crucial. Tight muscles pull on the bones and disrupt balance, which in turn places stress on soft tissues and can lead to injury for two reasons:
1. Due to the imbalance, movements are performed differently, resulting in excessive and inappropriate pressure on connective tissues. For example, a hip injury in a runner can be transferred to the knee if the runner continues training before the injury is resolved.
2. The body is subjected to constant stresses that can cause excessive strain. Common examples include anterior shoulder displacement, known as upper cross syndrome, and pelvic instability due to excessive tilting.
Both types of poor musculoskeletal alignment can cause joint discomfort and, as a result, lead to chronic pain. Lower back pain, in particular, is often associated with reduced mobility in the muscles that act on the hips and lower spine. In addition, tight muscles are prone to injury when a joint is forced into excessive stretching or moves at high speed. Poor flexibility and musculoskeletal imbalances are often the source of muscle strains, sprains, and dislocations.
Improving range of motion and performing flexibility training have been shown to have a beneficial effect on stress reduction, in part because they reduce muscle tension and improve tissue relaxation.
Characteristics of Soft Tissue
Soft tissue includes muscles, fascia, tendons, and ligaments. All of these have the ability to stretch or deform to some extent. Elasticity is a property of tissue that allows it to return to its original shape—that is, the shape it had before being stretched.
An elastic band can be stretched significantly, but when the forces acting on it are removed, it returns to its original shape because it possesses elastic properties. These properties function in the same way in soft tissue. The extent of stretching depends on the relationship between the internal force generated by the tissue and the external force pulling it to stretch. The greater the external force and the smaller the internal force, the greater the stretch.
Viscosity
Soft tissues are also influenced by viscosity, or the flow resistance of fluids. Unlike elasticity and plasticity, this property of tissue is not present at all times but depends on acute factors affecting the tissue. Viscous tissue resists changes more strongly.
When viscosity decreases, theue viscosity, which increases elasticity. Changes in viscosity are temporary and do not directly affect adaptations during flexibility training.
Reduced viscosity indirectly reduces resistance, allowing for a greater range of motion during flexibility training. Internal forces within the tissue that resist external forces also decrease. This is also why it is important to warm up before stretching.
Warming up reduces tissue viscosity, which increases elasticity. Changes in viscosity are temporary and do not directly affect adaptations during flexibility training.
Reduced viscosity indirectly reduces resistance, allowing for a greater range of motion during flexibility training.
Plasticity
Plasticity is a property of tissue that allows it to undergo permanent deformation or achieve a greater length after being stretched. Regular stretching can cause connective tissue to become plastic and permanently lengthen. This is why tendons respond to flexibility training.
Because they have limited elasticity, they adapt by lengthening. If the external force is much greater than the internal forces within the tissue, it stretches beyond its elastic limit. In this case, it can be damaged and permanently deformed.
An example of the negative consequences of plasticity is the permanent elongation of the spinal ligaments due to prolonged poor posture while sitting. This compromises the joint and increases the risk of injury.
Age
Like all other tissues in the body, muscle tissue declines with age. The exact rate of decline depends on several factors, including genetics, health status, fitness level, and the type of physical activity performed. The latter has almost the greatest impact, as the loss of function affects inactive individuals more severely, and the situation is further exacerbated by diseases and injuries.
Sarcopenia is a progressive form of muscle atrophy characterized by a reduction in the size and number of muscle fibers. This negatively affects strength, explosiveness, endurance, speed, and mobility.
The loss of mobility with age results from a decrease in the number of sarcomeres along the muscle, which are replaced by collagen and lipids. Fibrosis is a process in which tissue loses its resilience due to biochemical changes, during which the rigidity of connective tissue increases as a result of collagen deposition. The tissue is also subject to mineralization processes, such as calcification, which further reduces elasticity.
It is much easier to develop flexibility during childhood and then maintain it into adulthood than it is to begin flexibility training as an adult or even in old age.
Researcher Sermeev found that the optimal period for gaining flexibility is between the ages of 7 and 11, and that flexibility continues to increase at an accelerated rate until the age of 15. However, this does not mean that flexibility training later in life is pointless.
Nevertheless, it should be part of every exercise program, regardless of the exerciser’s age.
Gender
The prevailing view is that women are more flexible than men. While some studies support this, it is not an absolute truth. Even if we were to select two random passersby, we could disprove this theory, since flexibility is influenced by many factors. Certain factors do indeed suggest that women can achieve a greater range of motion than men in some joints. While there are exceptions, in general, the female pelvis is wider at the top and narrower at the bottom, which allows for a greater range of motion. Women also achieve a greater range of motion in elbow extension due to differences in the shape of the olecranon—the bony protrusion at the proximal end of the ulna—and some also have greater range of motion in the trunk due to shorter legs and a lower center of gravity. However, gender is not the decisive factor. Women may also notice differences in mobility due to hormonal influences and physical changes that occur during pregnancy. Joint laxity increases, likely due to the hormone relaxin, although there is no evidence to support this. A personal trainer should still be aware that this occurs during and immediately after pregnancy and adjust workout sessions accordingly.
Body Mass
It is often claimed that an increase in body mass reduces the range of motion in tissue. This is not entirely true. Several mechanisms are responsible for reducing mobility, but muscle hypertrophy is not one of them. Tissue has the same elastic properties regardless of fiber diameter. This misconception is likely due to factors associated with hypertrophy training. Muscles adapt to prolonged movement of heavy loads within a limited range of motion, which can lead to a reduction in flexibility. Chest presses with heavier weights and bilateral rows both reduce the range of motion in the upper back and shoulders. Individuals who train with appropriate loads and ensure they perform movements through the full range of motion will not lose flexibility. Overload training can even increase flexibility if performed correctly. For example, unilateral movements utilize a greater range of motion than bilateral movements due to the increased need for stabilization. Another reason for the link between hypertrophy and reduced flexibility may be the frequent use of steroids, which increase muscle mass beyond normal limits. In these individuals, the mass itself can be a physical barrier to flexibility, regardless of whether they also perform flexibility training. However, muscle mass is not the only factor that can pose a physical barrier.
Both visceral and subcutaneous fat, when present in excessive amounts, can hinder a person’s movement. This is especially true of fat in the abdominal region, which restricts the movement of other parts of the body when bending over or sitting. Obesity can also have indirect effects. People who are overweight typically move less, perform movements with a reduced range of motion, and experience musculoskeletal problems such as lower back pain and orthopedic limitations. All of these factors can further reduce the range of motion and severely limit mobility if left unaddressed.
Pain
When stretching, two factors related to range of motion are important: tolerance for discomfort and pain threshold. Stretching to full range of motion can be uncomfortable to varying degrees, depending on the receptors in the tissue that signal the level of pain. There are significant differences in tolerance among individuals, so the success of flexibility training may also depend on an individual’s pain threshold. Warming up the tissue before stretching is also crucial because it reduces resistance and discomfort at submaximal ranges of motion.
Injuries
Musculoskeletal injuries that limit range of motion are usually the result of acute trauma or chronic overuse of a joint. Common conditions associated with injuries include bursitis, tendonitis, impingement syndrome, and fasciitis.
Bursitis is a painful inflammation of the bursa, a soft, fluid-filled sac that cushions movement between the bones, tendons, and muscles around a joint. Bursitis usually occurs under the shoulder muscles, at the elbow (tennis elbow), at the hip, at the heel, or at the knee (infrapatellar bursitis). It can be acute or chronic. When a joint is overused or subjected to prolonged pressure or tension, the bursa near it can become inflamed. It fills with excess fluid, which puts pressure on nearby tissues and consequently leads to bursitis. The most common cause is trauma. Specific factors associated with bursitis include overuse or injury to the joint area, poor posture during work or rest, poor preparation before engaging in exercise or sports activities, and misalignment of a joint or bone (such as a leg-length discrepancy), which affects the soft tissues. The pain associated with bursitis often leads to compensatory movements and a limited range of motion. Tendonitis is a painful inflammation and swelling of a tendon, which is usually most severe at the point where the tendon attaches to the bone. Tendons are fibrous bands that connect muscles to bones. Tendonitis most commonly occurs in tendons near joints that are subjected to increased use. The most common types are Achilles, patellar, and elbow tendonitis. The causes can vary.
Tendonitis most often occurs in the tendons near joints that are subjected to increased use. The most common types are Achilles, patellar, and elbow tendonitis. The causes can vary, but the most common cause is overuse of the tendon due to work or physical activity. Tennis and golf often cause elbow tendonitis due to repetitive movements of the elbow. Other causes may include injury or inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Last but not least, age plays a role, as tendons lose elasticity over the years and become more susceptible to inflammation. Chronic tendonitis, due to pain and discomfort, limits participation in activities and reduces range of motion. Impingement syndrome is a painful pinching of a tendon between the bones of a joint. It is most common in the shoulder girdle, where the supraspinatus tendon, biceps tendon, and/or the bursa beneath the acromion of the clavicle and humerus become pinched between the head of the humerus and the coracoacromial arch. It most often occurs during activities involving repetitive overhead arm movements, such as swimming, tennis, volleyball, or throwing a ball. As with other conditions, pain is a major factor that limits the range of motion.
Fasciitis is an inflammation of the fascia. Any type of fascia can become inflamed, but plantar fasciitis is the most common. It occurs when tears develop in the long, fibrous plantar fascia on the bottom of the foot, causing pain and inflammation. The pain is usually located near where the fascia attaches to the heel bone. It is often caused by overexertion during physical activity or exercise. Excessive running, jumping, and other activities can put too much strain on the tissue, causing tears and inflammation, which leads to moderate to severe pain and limits movement.
FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY
• Knowledge of stretching techniques
• Lack of time
• Identified weaknesses
• The exerciser’s interest and pain threshold
• Imbalances
• Injuries
• Orthopedic limitations
• Medical conditions
Diseases
Many diseases can also affect range of motion. The most common are osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gout. Osteoarthritis is a degenerative condition associated with aging that can affect any joint, but most commonly affects the hips, knees, toes, and spine. Osteoarthritis increases the water content and decreases the protein content in cartilage. As a result, the cartilage begins to soften and break down, losing its ability to cushion movement. Osteophytes, or bony spurs, grow along the edges of the joint surfaces, while the joint capsules and synovial membranes thicken. Joint spaces narrow and lose stability, leading to pain, inflammation, and limited mobility. In addition to aging, obesity is a key cause, while other factors include repetitive stress on the joints and infections and old injuries. Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory condition of unknown origin. The symptoms are usually caused by the immune system, which attacks the joints and causes inflammation. Rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by erosive synovitis (joint inflammation), which sometimes extends beyond the joint. Most patients have a chronic condition that, despite treatment, progressively destroys the joints and leads to deformities, disability, and premature death. The most commonly affected joints are the wrists, shoulders, knees, ankles, and feet. About a quarter of patients also develop rheumatoid nodules near the joints and other skin problems, which are usually a sign that the condition will worsen very rapidly. Rheumatoid nodules most often form at pressure points, such as the sacrum and elbows. Rheumatoid arthritis is a serious condition that significantly affects joint mobility.
STRETCHING TECHNIQUES
Active-Assisted Stretching
This technique is similar to static stretching, except that it involves applying force to further increase the range of motion. The force can be provided by a hand pulling a limb or body part in the direction of the stretch; it can be provided by a partner pressing on the body or a body part; or we can use an aid. The duration of such a stretch should also be 30 seconds, but it is essential to be careful not to overdo the stretch and injure the tissues. The partner must be especially careful, so clear communication is crucial. If a trainer is actively assisting with the stretch, they must first explain the procedure to the client and emphasize the importance of communication to avoid potential injury. Before applying additional force, the person should perform passive stretching to get accustomed to the movement and recognize their limits.
Static Stretching
This is probably the most popular stretching technique. The individual slowly and deliberately stretches the tissue to its full range of motion. The slow pace is important to avoid a reflex that would stop the movement before reaching the end point. At the end point, the person holds the stretch and tries to relax the tissue. Calm breathing helps many people. For maximum effect, the stretch should be held for 30 seconds. Research has shown that a longer duration of the stretch does not provide a greater benefit. Static stretching is best performed at the end of a workout, not at the beginning, as it reduces muscle strength if done before strength or explosive exercises. At the end of a workout, after cooling down, it helps speed up recovery.
Dynamic Stretching
With these stretching techniques, we do not hold the stretch statically. They work just like any other physical activity and promote improved range of motion. When tissue is regularly moved through its full range of motion, it maintains its elasticity. The advantage of these techniques is that the body can improve its flexibility through the movements we perform before or after a workout. They have become popular at running events and were soon adopted by many other sports as a way to prepare for a competition or training session. They have also found their place in workout programs with limited time. Dynamic stretching often follows a warm-up, but it can also be sport-specific when we use movement patterns from the exercises that follow. Sport-specific dynamic Stretching uses various movements similar to those in the sport we’re training for, or it targets the muscles that are primarily involved in a specific activity. The movements are often exaggerated and performed to the fullest possible range of motion. Common examples include high knees or walking with high lifts of the extended legs, lifting a leg over a high obstacle, or excessively long lunges. We perform the movements in a controlled manner to prevent the activation of muscle spindles that would limit the range of motion. Slow dynamic stretching is similar to specific stretching, except that the movements are slower and more isolated. Examples include slow deep squats, single-leg lunges, and touching the floor with your toes while reaching toward the ceiling. With this technique, we often use a stopwatch or slow counting to ensure that the movement in both directions is performed slowly enough. There are countless examples, as we can use any movement. If this technique is not intended for a specific warm-up, it makes sense to use it for movements we wouldn’t normally perform, as this will best contribute to greater mobility in all planes.
BASIC GUIDELINES FOR STRETCHING
• TYPE: Static or dynamic
• VOLUME: 10–12 repetitions, 2–4 sets, 15–30 seconds of static stretching; for PNF, 5–10 seconds
of contraction and 6–12 seconds of stretching
• DYNAMIC: a total of 1–2 minutes of stretching per
muscle group
• INTENSITY: tolerable discomfort, no pain
• DURATION: 15–30 minutes
• FREQUENCY: at least 2–3 times a week, preferably most days of the week
These guidelines help you incorporate flexibility exercises into your training program. In some cases, it makes sense to do flexibility training separately; in others, you’ll combine it with aerobic and/or anaerobic training.
These guidelines also apply if flexibility training is done separately; only the volume changes.
If time is limited, incorporate dynamic stretches into your workout. A good example is a weighted squat followed by slow bodyweight squats.